<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN">
<HTML><HEAD><TITLE></TITLE>
<META http-equiv=Content-Type content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
<META content="MSHTML 6.00.6000.16705" name=GENERATOR></HEAD>
<BODY><!-- Converted from text/plain format -->
<P><FONT size=2><FONT size=3><STRONG>Nixon, Rod. PhD thesis. Integrating
Indigenous Approaches into a New Subsistence State:<BR>The Case of Justice and
Conflict Resolution in East Timor. Submitted February 2008 Charles Darwin
University</STRONG></FONT><BR><BR><BR><STRONG>Abstract</STRONG><BR>This thesis
begins by proposing the typology of the New Subsistence State as a conceptual
tool<BR>for understanding governance challenges typically faced in jurisdictions
characterised by<BR>subsistence social and economic relations. Defining features
of the New Subsistence State<BR>include (1) an overwhelmingly subsistence
economy corresponding to little or no historical<BR>experience of the generation
and administration of large surpluses, (2) minimal workforce<BR>stratification
and labour specialisation, (3) the predominance, especially in rural areas,
of<BR>traditional authority relations, and (4) the realisation of statehood as a
result of either the<BR>adoption or bestowal of the state model, rather than the
autochthonous development of the state<BR>form.<BR>The thesis then examines ways
in which the case-study of East Timor conforms to the typology<BR>of the New
Subsistence State. This analysis includes consideration of a range of
geographic,<BR>historical and socio-political features, and some of the ways
these aspects restrict the capacity of<BR>the new state to operate effectively
in accordance with the modern state model. A particular<BR>theme concerns the
minimal extent to which the territory of East Timor has
experienced<BR>meaningful social and economic modernisation throughout any of
the chapters of its history.<BR>Additionally, a range of other influences
contributing to governance challenges in East Timor in<BR>contemporary times are
examined, including post-conflict aspects, demographic trends and<BR>political
antipathies which have their origins in the 19741975 period. The
analysis<BR>demonstrates that East Timor faces major challenges in all main
areas of public administration,<BR>with the justice sector an area of particular
concern.<BR>Whereas state institutions remain weak, the country has the option
to draw on suco institutions to<BR>support some areas of governance, including
justice and conflict resolution. In a number of<BR>comparable New Subsistence
State contexts elsewhere, strategies have been implemented to
link<BR>village-level forums to the state justice sector, yet no such initiative
has been implemented in<BR>East Timor. However, a community justice and
mediation program could be a relatively<BR>economical means of improving the
efficiency of suco-level justice and conflict resolution<BR>forums, promoting
human rights values and reducing the burden on the national courts
system.<BR><BR><BR><STRONG>Table of Contents</STRONG><BR>List of
Maps
.
..v<BR>List of
Diagrams
..
.vi<BR>List of
Tables
..
...
vi<BR>List of
Illustrations
...
...vii<BR>Abbreviations and Foreign
and Technical
Terms
...
...viii<BR>Abstract
.
..xiv<BR>Acknowledgements
......xv<BR>Introduction
.1<BR>Structure
of the Study
.
.2<BR>Literature
Review
.
...7<BR>1. States, Weak States and New
Subsistence States<BR>Introduction
..
.
23<BR>State
Development in Context..
.
23<BR>Independent States and
the Democratic Development Agenda
.
.28<BR>Weak and Failing
States..
.
.33<BR>Sociology and the Weak
State
.
..38<BR>The Western
Experience
...............42<BR>Seeing Local Capacities
as Strengths not Weaknesses
.48<BR>Restorative
Justice
.50<BR>Conclusion
.
52<BR>2.
State Development in East Timor: Geographic and Historical Factors in the
Pre-<BR>Colonial and Colonial
Periods<BR>Introduction
.
..53<BR>Timor: a
Geographic Overview
.53<BR>Human
Settlement
55<BR>Historical Agricultural Development
Challenges
56<BR>Socio-political Characteristics at Colonial
Contact
...........................................................59<BR>The
Long Process of Colonial Consolidation
63<BR>Portuguese Timor
in the Late Colonial
Era
...72<BR>Administration
..74<BR>Assimilado
Policy
.78<BR>ii<BR>Defence of the
Province
...81<BR>Attempts at Economic
Development
86<BR>Education and the Role of the Catholic
Church
...92<BR>Portuguese Timor in the 1960s and
1970s
...
95<BR>Implications of Geographic, Socio-political and
Historical Factors on State Development<BR>Prospects in East
Timor
97<BR>Conclusion
...101<BR>3.
The Emergence of Politics and Political Conflict: Developments April 1974
to<BR>December 1975<BR>Introduction
.
104<BR>The
Formation of Political Organisations and the Discovery of Political Differences:
April<BR>1974August 1975
..105<BR>A Coalition of
the Doomed: the FRETILIN/UDT Agreement of 21st January 1975
115<BR>Indonesian
Involvement and the Militarisation of Politics
119<BR>Deterioration in
UDT/FRETILIN Relations
..125<BR>The UDT Attempted Coup
detat
...128<BR>The Organisation of the FRETILIN
Counter-coup
.
...134<BR>The Period of FRETILIN Interim Governance:
September to December
1975
.138<BR>Conclusion
...148<BR>4. The
Indonesian Period: An Assessment of the Consequences for
State<BR>Development<BR>Introduction
.150<BR>The
Invasion and the Resistance: Developments and Turning
Points
................151<BR>Development of the FRETILIN Resistance
Model
151<BR>Marxism and its
Consequences
..152<BR>Encirclement, Annihilation and a
Revised Resistance Strategy
.154<BR>Reorganisation and the Beginnings of
Reconciliation
..
.156<BR>The National Unity Reorganisation of the
Late 1980s
157<BR>Events Contributing to an Increased International
Profile in the 1990s
.159<BR>The Indonesian Krismon and a Change in
Fortune
163<BR>The Establishment of the Concelho Nacional da
Resistκncia Timorense (CNRT),<BR>and the Appearance of a Unified Independence
Movement
.
164<BR>Events Associated with the Declaration of the
Referendum<BR>and the Indonesian
Withdrawal
.
.165<BR>iii<BR>Developments of the Occupation
Years of Significance to State Development Prospects in
East<BR>Timor
...
................169<BR>A Mixed
Legacy: the Indonesian Development of East Timor
..169<BR>Education and
Capacity Development
...............174<BR>East Timorese
Participation in Public Administration
...............180<BR>East
Timorese Participation in the Broader
Workforce
.184<BR>Health
.186<BR>Broader
Development Outcomes
...............188<BR>Socio-political
Legacies of the Indonesian period
..
................198<BR>The
Impact of the Occupation Period on Social Capital
199<BR>Martial
Organisation
...200<BR>Generational
Differences
202<BR>The Failure of the Indonesian Period
to Engender Confidence in State Institutions<BR>and the State Justice
Sector
...
.204<BR>The Growth of the
Church
.
.205<BR>Other Resistance
Legacies
.
.207<BR>Conclusion
.
..209<BR>5.
The Transition to
Statehood<BR>Introduction
..
.
..211<BR>INTERFET and
the Emergency Period
...212<BR>Humanitarian Emergency and
Refugee Return
..214<BR>Funding
Appeal
..215<BR>UN State-building in East
Timor
...
.217<BR>UNTAET and its
Mandate
.
217<BR>Establishing a UN Governance and Public
Administration (GPA) Structure
221<BR>The Role of Non-state Actors in the
Early Transitional Period
.227<BR>East Timorese Participation in
Transitional Governance...
...............231<BR>Realising Independent
Statehood
................238<BR>Conclusion
..248<BR>6. The RDTL State: The First Five
Years<BR>Introduction
.
249<BR>The Emergence of
Vulnerabilities
...249<BR>The Bicentric Governance System
and Control of Security Forces
...............250<BR>Weak State
Indicators
.254<BR>iv<BR>The December 2002
Riots
..............256<BR>The Interior Ministry Takes
Control of Domestic and Border Security
257<BR>Negotiating the Place of
Religion in the Educational Curriculum
.257<BR>The 2006 Political Crisis:
East Timor Becomes a Temporarily Broken State
259<BR>The 2007 Elections and
a Change of Leadership
274<BR>Profiling the New Subsistence
State of East Timor
283<BR>Economic and Demographic
Factors
.284<BR>Security, Stability and
Order
..287<BR>Democracy and
Governance
..289<BR>Availability and Prudent Use of State
Resources
...292<BR>Public
Administration
297<BR>The State Justice
Sector
..304<BR>Conclusion
...310<BR>7.
East Timorese Systems of Justice and Conflict
Resolution<BR>Introduction
...
..312<BR>Early
Observations
..312<BR>Barlaque
...
..315<BR>Justice
and Conflict Resolution in a Cultural Context
...316<BR>Role of
Ancestors in Justice
...317<BR>The Compensation
Principle
..318<BR>Collective
Responsibility
...320<BR>Reconciliation
.
320<BR>Sorcery
...321<BR>The
Indonesian Period
.324<BR>Suco Justice and Dispute
Resolution in the Twenty-First Century
.325<BR>The Importance of Quick
Justice
327<BR>Justice and Conflict
Resolution
..328<BR>Compensation
.332<BR>The
Continuing Problem of Sorcery
..334<BR>Suco Authorities and
Land Dispute
Resolution
.336<BR>Conclusion
...348<BR>v<BR>8.
The Role of Suco Justice Principles in an Emerging New Subsistence
State<BR>Introduction
.350<BR>Suco Justice and
the International Intervention
...............350<BR>Restorative
and Diversionary (and Other) Justice Approaches during the<BR>UN
Period
...353<BR>What Role for Restorative
Approaches in the New Subsistence State of East Timor?..............363<BR>Some
East Timorese Perspectives and Strategies
..363<BR>Universal
Justice and Local Realities
.366<BR>Future
Directions
371<BR>Conclusion
...380<BR>Conclusion
...
.383<BR>References
...
.
..393<BR>Informants
...
.
.
.....443<BR>Appendix
A
...
.
447<BR>Semi-structured Interview Guidelines
for Customary Justice Study.<BR>Appendix
B
...
....
.
.....454<BR>Land Dispute Mediation
Questionnaire for Key Informants.<BR>Appendix
C
.
..
.......
..470<BR>Land Dispute Mediation
Questionnaire for Randomly Selected Household-heads from Manatuto<BR>and Ermera
Sub-districts.<BR>Appendix D
...
.
478<BR>Land
Rights and Title Restitution Questionnaire for National Randomised Survey
(abridged).<BR>Appendix
E
...
...............
..
.480<BR>Post-War Census and
Collection of Native Head-Tax Regulation (abridged).<BR>List of Maps<BR>Map
1
..........
...
...
.xvii<BR>Repϊblica Democrαtica de
Timor-Leste - Districts Boundaries.<BR>Map
2
..
...
..
.
...........
....65<BR>Map of Timor Adapted
from a Map Appended to the Memoirs of Former Governor of<BR>Portuguese Timor,
Affonso de Castro (1867).<BR>vi<BR>List of Diagrams<BR>Diagram
1
...
....
228<BR>CNRT organisational structure at
zona (sub-district) level.<BR>Diagram
2
..............
.
..
..331<BR>Possible course of
justice/dispute resolution proceedings in Oecusse, where ritual
and<BR>administrative authority commonly overlap.<BR>List of Tables<BR>Table
1
.
...............
.
..
..29<BR>Countries and
territories receiving no official development assistance.<BR>Table
2
.......
177<BR>Educational achievements of
over-ten population throughout Indonesia in 1995.<BR>Table
3................................................................................................................................
...193<BR>Identified
state forestry plantations and seedling production sites in East Timor,
2005.<BR>Table 4
...
.
..
..196<BR>Identified state
aquaculture sites in East Timor, 2005.<BR>Table
5
.
.
..244<BR>Distribution of seats in
Constituent Assembly.<BR>Table
6
.
...
.
.
..276<BR>Districts in order of
pro-Ramos-Horta vote in the 2007 presidential election.<BR>Table
7
...
..
.
..279<BR>2007 parliamentary election
results: distribution of seats.<BR>Table
8
.
.
..293<BR>Basis of Combined Sources Budget
2006-2007 to 2009-2010 (USD).<BR>Table
9
.
.
..299<BR>Profile of non-customary primary
industry parcels in East Timor.<BR>Table
10
...
..
.
339<BR>Who should make a compulsory
decision concerning the resolution of a land dispute or claim in<BR>the event a
compulsory decision must be made?<BR>Table
11
...
..
.340<BR>Who has major responsibility for
decisions about land in the suco?<BR>vii<BR>Table
12
....
..341<BR>Total land dispute mediation
forums used by (eighteen) randomly selected respondents with past<BR>involvement
in land disputes.<BR>Table 13
...
...
342<BR>Which
kinds of land disputes are most/least common, and which kinds are easy/difficult
to<BR>resolve? (from key persons sample with 101 respondents)<BR>Table
14
...
.
..
343<BR>Most appropriate authorities for
managing the resolution of inter-suco boundary disputes (note<BR>that
respondents were able to list multiple authorities).<BR>Table
15
...
.
......345<BR>Perceptions of (101) key
persons concerning which forums are part of which system (traditional<BR>or
formal).<BR>Table
16
...............
..........
.346<BR>Perceptions of
members of key persons sample concerning which system (traditional or
courts)<BR>is best (total sample 101).<BR>Table
17
...
.
.
.
347<BR>Perceptions of representatives of
womens organisations concerning which system (traditional or<BR>courts) is best
(total sample thirteen).<BR>List of Illustrations<BR>(All photographs by the
author unless otherwise indicated)<BR>Figure
1.
.
...
..
..91<BR>Recovering oil at Pualaca,
Laclubar (Manatuto), November 1946<BR>(Charles Eaton. Courtesy of Charles S.
Eaton).<BR>Figure 2
...
...
.
.
..
243<BR>East Timorese
voters outside the Bobometo polling station, Oecusse, 30th August
2001.<BR>Figure 3
...
....
...300<BR>The last days
of a state-owned sandalwood tree.<BR>Figure
4
..
...
...
...300<BR>Oecusse state
forest.<BR>Figure 5
...
..
...
..
.301<BR>Abandoned
fish and prawn farm, Liquiηa.<BR>viii<BR>Figure
6
...
...
...
301<BR>Dili stormwater drain.<BR><BR>Bu
Wilson<BR>Regulatory Institutions Network (RegNet) Research School of
Pacific and Asian Studies<BR>College of Asia and the Pacific,<BR>Australian
National University<BR>Canberra ACT
0200<BR>AUSTRALIA<BR><BR>T: 02 6125 3194<BR>F: 02 6125 1507<BR>M: 0407 087
086<BR>E: Bu.Wilson@anu.edu.au<BR><BR><BR><BR><A
href="http://regnet.anu.edu.au">http://regnet.anu.edu.au</A><BR><BR>ANU Cricos
Provider Code - 00120C </FONT></P></BODY></HTML>